Mormon polygamy (or “plural marriage”) was a 19th-century religious practice introduced by Joseph Smith and further embraced by leaders like Brigham Young. It played an important role in shaping the history and culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. While the Church officially ended the practice through the 1890 Manifesto (and polygamy is strictly prohibited today), it took years to bring it to a complete stop, and the topic remains controversial today. This guide provides an overview of Latter-day Saint polygamy, including answers to common questions and resources for further reading.
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Table of Contents
- Origins
- Emma Smith
- Brigham Young’s Expansion
- Life in a Plural Marriage
- Pioneer-Era Utah
- Government Crackdown
- 1890 Manifesto
- Post-Manifesto Polygamy
- Popular Culture
- FAQ
- Further Reading
Joseph Smith and the Origins of Plural Marriage
— Joseph Smith introduced the controversial practice of plural marriage in the 1830s and 1840s, leading to an estimated 30 to 40 secret sealings that fundamentally shaped early Latter-day Saint theology.
Did Joseph Smith practice polygamy?
Yes. Although polygamy is often associated with Brigham Young, the marriage practice was first introduced by Joseph Smith in the 1830s and 1840s. Scholars estimate that the Prophet had between 30 and 40 wives. Plural marriage largely remained secret during his lifetime, and it sparked controversy when introduced among early Church leaders and members.
Did the Prophet’s views on plural marriage evolve?
Historians debate how Joseph Smith’s understanding of polygamous marriage developed, with some arguing that his early unions were more experimental than doctrinal.
Historian Benjamin Park proposes that the theological framework for eternal sealings—which became closely tied to polygamy—fully developed later, around 1840–1841, in Nauvoo. By this time, Smith had introduced the concept to trusted associates and begun sealing men and women in celestial marriages.
While the exact timeline remains unclear, most scholars agree that plural marriage evolved alongside broader restorationist doctrines on family and exaltation.
When did Joseph Smith begin practicing polygamy?
There’s no definitive date for Joseph Smith’s first plural marriage, but many historians suggest that he may have married Fanny Alger as early as 1833. The doctrine of celestial marriage, which later included polygamy, began to take shape in the early 1840s in Nauvoo, Illinois.
Joseph Smith introduced close followers to Plural Marriage
Joseph Smith introduced many individuals in his inner circle to plural marriage. For example, Brigham Young learned the principle from Joseph and used coded language to record marriages in the Brigham Young Journals. Heber C. Kimball was also told to practice polygamy, which he was initially reluctant to do. Similarly, Willard Richards performed a plural marriage ceremony for Joseph Smith, and the Prophet officiated in at least one of Richards’s marriages in turn.
At least two of Joseph Smith’s uncanonized revelations address polygamy concerning Marinda Nancy Johnson, Newel K. Whitney, and Sarah Ann Whitney.
However, not all of the people to whom he introduced the principle agreed with the idea, a reality which contributed to the creation of the Nauvoo Expositor and quickly led to Joseph Smith’s assassination.
Why was polygamy kept secret?
Plural marriage was a challenging doctrine for early Latter-day Saints to accept. Some members, including those close to Joseph Smith, resisted or outright rejected it.
Fearing public backlash, internal dissent, and legal repercussions, Joseph Smith introduced the practice cautiously, confiding only in trusted associates. The resulting secrecy caused many problems for pioneer Saints and continues to perplex many contemporary Latter-day Saints.
Why was Joseph’s polygamy considered taboo?
Plural marriage is an uncomfortable topic, and for a long time, it was taboo to discuss Joseph Smith’s marriages to women other than Emma Smith.
Todd Compton explained some of the irony of this taboo:
Joseph Smith’s revelation on polygamy (D&C 132) and his extensive practice of polygamy laid the foundation for polygamy being an important doctrine and practice of nineteenth-century Mormonism in Utah . . . .
Brigham Young was sometimes accepted as a much-married polygamist, but Latter-day Saint culture downplayed Joseph Smith’s polygamy—despite the fact that D&C 132 is still in our Doctrine & Covenants, and that Jenson and Joseph F. Smith carefully documented Joseph Smith’s plural marriages.
In Sacred Loneliness: The Documents of Joseph Smith’s Wives
Who were Joseph Smith’s additional wives?
Historical records identify numerous women who were sealed to Joseph Smith. Historian Todd Compton provides the following list of Joseph Smith’s 33 wives and their likely marriage dates:
- Fanny Alger (Smith Custer) [early 1833]
- Lucinda Pendleton (Morgan Harris Smith) [1838]
- Louisa Beaman (Smith Young) [1841]
- Zina Diantha Huntington (Jacobs Smith Young) [1841]
- Presendia Lathrop Huntington (Buell Smith Kimball) [1841]
- Agnes Moulton Coolbrith (Smith Smith Smith Pickett) [1842]
- Sylvia Porter Sessions (Lyon Smith Kimball Clark) [1842]
- Mary Elizabeth Rollins (Lightner Smith Young) [1842]
- Patty Bartlett (Sessions Smith Parry) [1842]
- Marinda Nancy Johnson (Hyde Smith) [1842]
- Elizabeth Davis (Goldsmith Brackenbury Durfee Smith Lott) [1842]
- Sarah Kingsley (Howe Cleveland Smith Smith) [1842]
- Delcena Diadamia Johnson (Sherman Smith Babbitt) [1842]
- Eliza Roxcy Snow (Smith Young) [1842]
- Sarah Ann Whitney (Smith [Kingsbury] Kimball) [1842]
- Martha McBride (Knight Smith Kimball) [1842]
- Flora Ann Woodworth (Smith Gove) [1843]
- Emily Dow Partridge (Smith Young) [1843]
- Eliza Maria Partridge (Smith Lyman) [1843]
- Lucy Walker (Smith Kimball) [1843]
- Sarah Lawrence (Smith Kimball Mount) [1843]
- Maria Lawrence (Smith [Young] Babbitt) [1843]
- Helen Mar Kimball (Smith Whitney) [1843]
- Ruth Vose (Sayers Smith) [1843 or 1844]
- Hannah Ells (Smith) [1843]
- Almera Woodard Johnson (Smith Barton) [1843]
- Elvira Annie Cowles (Holmes Smith) [1843]
- Rhoda Richards (Smith Young) [1843]
- Desdemona Catlin Wadsworth Fullmer (Smith Benson McLane) [1843]
- Olive Grey Frost (Smith Young) [1843]
- Melissa Lott (Smith Bernhisel Willes) [1843]
- Nancy Maria Winchester (Smith Kimball Arnold) [1842 or 1843]
- Fanny Young (Carr Murray Smith) [1843]
Did Joseph Smith have children with plural wives?
There’s no evidence that Joseph Smith fathered children with anyone other than Emma Smith, despite having 30–40 plural wives. Historical claims of secret offspring have largely been disproven by modern DNA testing. This has sparked debate, with some suggesting Smith had limited sexual relations with his wives, while others point to the secrecy of plural marriage affecting record-keeping.
What is the Law of Sarah in Latter-day Saint Polygamy?
The Law of Sarah, mentioned in Doctrine and Covenants 132, refers to the idea that a wife should consent before her husband takes additional wives. However, the revelation also states that if she refuses, the husband can proceed under divine authority, making it a controversial aspect of early Latter-day Saint polygamy.
How did polygamy impact the Nauvoo Society and church leaders?
Plural marriage created significant tension in 1840s Illinois, as Ben Park indicates in Kingdom of Nauvoo: The Rise and Fall of a Religious Empire on the American Frontier. Some prominent Church leaders, including William Law, opposed the practice, leading to the publication of the Nauvoo Expositor, which contributed to Joseph Smith’s assassination.
Did you know?
Joseph Smith's first known plural marriage was in 1836 in Kirtland, Ohio, with Fanny Alger. When their relationship became known, it shook the faith of leaders like Oliver Cowdery and Parley P. Pratt, leading many Latter-day Saints to leave the Church.
Emma Smith and Polygamy
— Emma Smith’s staunch opposition to plural marriage and her rejection of Brigham Young’s leadership created a lasting division over Joseph Smith’s legacy and the historical narrative of early polygamy.
Opposition to Plural Marriage
As the first wife of Joseph Smith, Emma Hale Smith occupied a unique and agonizing position in the history of Latter-day Saint polygamy. Her experience was characterized by a painful oscillation between a desire to support her husband’s prophetic claims and a deep-seated revulsion toward the practice of plural marriage.
The Fanny Alger Incident
Emma’s first encounter with the practice likely occurred in the mid-1830s in Kirtland with Fanny Alger. While historical details remain sparse, Oliver Cowdery characterized the relationship as a “dirty, nasty, stinking affair.” The resulting tension led to Fanny’s departure from Ohio and set a pattern of covertly practicing polygamy that would impact the next decade of Emma’s life.
Advocating for “moral purity” in Nauvoo
By the early 1840s in Nauvoo, as Joseph began teaching and practicing “the principle” more actively in secret, Emma’s opposition became more public.
As the first president of the Relief Society, she utilized her leadership to advocate for “moral purity,” often using the organization’s platform to denounce “spiritual wifery” and unauthorized polygamy, which she initially hoped was a corruption of Joseph’s teachings by others like John C. Bennett.
The May 1843 Sealings and D&C 132
According to some later recollections, during a brief and difficult period in May 1843, Emma tried to reconcile herself to the doctrine. She gave her consent for Joseph to be sealed to four women—the Partridge and Lawrence sisters—personally placing their hands in Joseph’s.
However, this acceptance was short-lived. Following the ceremonies, her distress returned, and she reportedly demanded that Joseph end the relationships. This tension culminated in July 1843, when Joseph dictated the revelation on plural marriage (now Doctrine and Covenants 132).
Public denials
After Joseph’s martyrdom in 1844, Emma’s role shifted from internal resistance to external denial. She remained in Nauvoo, eventually breaking with Brigham Young over both leadership and polygamy.
For the remainder of her life, she publicly maintained that Joseph had never authorized or practiced plural marriage, helping shape the Community of Christ’s early identity.
???? Learn More! For a complete look at Emma’s life and her various roles in early Church history, see our Emma Smith page.
Brigham Young and the Expansion of Polygamy
— Under the leadership of Brigham Young, polygamy was publicly institutionalized and became a defining cultural and religious pillar of the Church in the Utah Territory.
How Brigham Young implemented polygamy
After Joseph Smith’s death, Brigham Young fully institutionalized polygamy, making it a defining feature of early Latter-day Saint life. As the Church’s new leader, he encouraged members to enter plural marriages and led by example, marrying at least 55 wives.
Under Young’s leadership, polygamy became a publicly acknowledged practice, with new sealings performed in Salt Lake City and other settlements. He oversaw the expansion of family structures, property arrangements, and legal defenses for plural marriage, ensuring it was deeply woven into Utah society.
By 1852, Church leaders formally announced polygamy to the world, setting the stage for decades of controversy and legal battles.
How Brigham managed his polygamous household
Brigham Young, the second president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, practiced polygamy throughout his life, eventually marrying 55 women and fathering 56 children. He managed his large household with a combination of religious authority and strict control, and his family life revolved around the belief that polygamy was a divinely ordained practice.
Young’s homes, particularly the Lion House and Beehive House in Salt Lake City, served as central hubs for his polygamous family. Each wife had her own section of the household, and Young maintained authority over decisions, dividing his time between political, religious, and familial duties.
While Young promoted cooperation among his wives, the dynamics of his household were marked by hierarchy and competition, with some wives enjoying greater favor than others, which led to rivalries.
The polygamous pioneer prophet held an evening devotional for his family, akin to contemporary “family home evenings.” He would ring a prayer bell each night at 7 p.m. and expect all of his family to gather in the Lion House.
The church president sometimes expressed frustration that not all of his wives were in attendance. When the prayer bell rang, Brigham expected everyone to be “ready to bow down before the Lord to make their acknowledgements to Him for His kindness and mercy and long-suffering toward us.”
How did Brigham Young justify polygamy?
Brigham Young was polygamy’s most vocal defender, arguing that it was a divine commandment and essential for exaltation. He frequently preached that plural marriage strengthened families, increased posterity, and restored biblical principles. In fiery sermons, he condemned those who opposed it, claiming that rejecting polygamy was equivalent to rejecting God.
Despite mounting criticism from the U.S. government, Young remained defiant, portraying plural marriage as a religious right protected by the Constitution.
How many wives and children did Brigham Young have?
The Lion of the Lord had at least 55 wives and 56 children, making him one of the most prominent polygamists in Latter-day Saint history. While some marriages may have been spiritual sealings, many involved family life. Today, Young’s descendants number more than 30,000.
Relationship with Emma Smith and early controversies
The relationship between Brigham Young and Emma Smith was defined by deep-seated conflict over Church leadership and the practice of polygamy following Joseph Smith’s death.
While Brigham sought to institutionalize plural marriage in Utah, Emma openly rejected his authority and maintained that her husband had never authorized the practice—a stance that eventually led her to align with the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (now Community of Christ).
Brigham, in turn, harshly criticized Emma’s opposition, once remarking that she would be “damned” for denying Joseph’s teachings. This personal and ideological feud created a lasting theological rift, shaping how divergent Latter-day Saint movements have interpreted Joseph Smith’s legacy for nearly two centuries.
Tensions with the U.S. government
Brigham Young’s embrace of polygamy put the Church in direct conflict with the U.S. government, which saw the practice as morally and legally unacceptable. Federal laws like the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act (1862) and the Edmunds Act (1882) targeted polygamy, leading to fines, arrests, and the loss of Latter-day Saint political power.
Young resisted government interference, declaring that the Church had the right to govern itself. Tensions escalated when federal troops were sent to Utah in 1857 during the Utah War, forcing Young to declare martial law temporarily. As pressure mounted, polygamous families went into hiding, and Church leaders faced imprisonment. These legal battles set the stage for the eventual end of plural marriage in 1890.
Did you know?
The Republican Party's 1856 platform called for the eradication of the “twin relics of barbarism,” polygamy and slavery. This was one of a few reasons why Brigham Young was hesitant to immediately eliminate slavery in Utah Territory.
Life in a Plural Marriage
— Daily life in polygamous households involved complex family structures, where wives navigated both deep religious devotion and significant emotional and logistical challenges.
Daily life and family structures
Polygamous families in early Latter-day Saint communities had complex structures, with husbands dividing time among multiple wives and children. Homes varied from shared spaces to separate residences, depending on finances. Wives often worked together, managing household tasks, raising children, and offering emotional support. However, jealousy and competition were common challenges.
Many justified the practice as a commandment from God, with religious devotion central to their lives. Polygamy required strict organization, relying on the husband’s leadership and the wives’ adaptability.
Women’s experiences and agency
Women in plural marriage had varied experiences, ranging from deep religious convictions to personal struggles. Some embraced polygamy as a divine commandment, believing it would bring spiritual blessings. Others found it emotionally and financially challenging, navigating jealousy, competition, and limited autonomy.
While some wives had a degree of agency—choosing their husbands, leaving unhappy marriages, or becoming leaders in their communities—many had little control over their circumstances. Support networks among wives helped ease difficulties, with some forming close sisterhoods.
Despite the hardships, polygamous women played essential roles in education, business, and church leadership, shaping early Latter-day Saint society.
Economic and logistical challenges
Supporting multiple wives and children placed a heavy financial burden on polygamous men, especially those with modest means. Some families shared resources, with wives working together in farming, household tasks, or small businesses. Others faced poverty, as not all men could provide equally for each wife. Housing varied—some wives lived separately, while others shared homes, creating logistical challenges.
Managing time and relationships was also tough, with husbands rotating visits and making decisions for multiple households. Despite these struggles, many viewed plural marriage as a test of faith and sacrifice, strengthening their religious commitment.
Cultural shifts and expectations
Plural marriage redefined traditional family roles in early Latter-day Saint society, requiring both men and women to adapt to new marital and social norms. Women were expected to accept plural marriage as a religious duty, often prioritizing faith over personal desires. The practice also reshaped gender dynamics, as some women found leadership opportunities within the home, the Church, and the community.
Over time, polygamy set Latter-day Saints apart from mainstream American culture, fueling public criticism and government opposition. As laws against polygamy intensified, families faced increasing pressure to justify or conceal their way of life, ultimately leading to major cultural shifts when the Church abandoned the practice in 1890.
Less romance in relationships
Polygamy led to a decreased emphasis on romantic love:
I think the hope of nineteenth-century Latter-day Saints was that they would be able to de-emphasize love within polygamous marriages. They believed that strong attachments between husbands and wives would lead to jealousy within polygamous relationships and that love could be used to tie women to unsuitable husbands.
The problem, however, was that few people abandoned the idea of love. Nineteenth-century novels, poetry, and greeting cards encouraged people to develop feelings of romantic love for their partners.
Imperial Zions: An Interview with Amanda Hendrix-Komoto
Likewise, Susa Young Gates wrote that her mother, Lucy Bigelow Young, was “fearful of romantic notions.”
Polygamy in Pioneer-Era Utah
— Plural marriage deeply influenced the social and economic development of pioneer-era Utah, creating unique community bonds and large, interconnected family networks across the region.
When did polygamy start in Utah?
Polygamy was practiced by some Latter-day Saints before they arrived in Utah, but it remained a private doctrine during Joseph Smith’s lifetime. After the Saints settled in the West, Church leaders openly embraced plural marriage, with Brigham Young leading by example.
Plural marriage remained largely secret until 1852, when Church leader Orson Pratt publicly announced the practice in Salt Lake City.
The declaration marked a turning point, solidifying polygamy as a central tenet of Latter-day Saint belief. Many members saw it as a divine commandment, while others struggled with its implications.
The announcement also intensified national scrutiny, further isolating the Church from mainstream American society.
Social and political impact in Utah
Polygamy shaped Utah’s political and social landscape, influencing governance, family structures, and community organization. Latter-day Saints built settlements based on cooperative principles, with polygamous families playing key roles in economic and civic life. However, plural marriage fueled anti-Mormon sentiment, as outsiders viewed it as a threat to American values.
Tensions between Utah and federal authorities escalated, prompting the government to take legislative action against the practice. In addition, John Milton Bernhisel found that public knowledge of plural marriage made it difficult to guide legislation benefiting the Utah Territory through the United States Congress.
The Mormon Reformation’s emphasis on plural marriage
The Mormon Reformation was a time of intense recommitment to the Church that led to pressure to enter into plural marriages. As a result, statistics indicate that the number of plural marriages in relation to the population was 65 percent higher in 1856–57 than in any other two-year period in Utah history.
The Utah War and government intervention
Growing distrust between Latter-day Saints and the U.S. government led to the Utah War (1857–1858), a conflict sparked by fears of Mormon rebellion. President James Buchanan sent federal troops to replace Brigham Young as governor, escalating tensions but avoiding full-scale war.
The conflict ended in negotiation, but it reinforced federal opposition to polygamy. In the years that followed, the government intensified efforts to dismantle plural marriage through legal and military pressure.
Literature, poetry, and media portrayals
Both Latter-day Saints and their critics used literature and media to shape public perceptions of polygamy. Church members wrote faith-promoting poetry and articles defending the practice as a sacred principle. Meanwhile, anti-Mormon novels, newspapers, and exposés depicted polygamy as oppressive and immoral.
These portrayals influenced national attitudes, increasing public support for federal action against the Church. The cultural battle over polygamy played a key role in the eventual push to end the practice.
Impact on Church membership outside of Utah
For over a decade, plural marriage was a closely guarded secret, often met with explicit public denials. When Church leaders finally announced the practice in August 1852, the news triggered a wave of theological whiplash for Latter-day Saints worldwide.
Crisis of Faith
In the United Kingdom, the announcement left members like Hannah Tapfield King in “agony,” feeling “overpowered” and “stunned.” Having joined a movement she believed practiced traditional monogamy, she recalled the news as an “extraordinary effect” that led her to skeptically ask, “Did this come from God?”
Deception and Dissent
The shift also sparked significant internal schisms. William Bickerton, a successful elder in Pennsylvania, had been personally assured by missionaries in 1851 that polygamy rumors were false. Upon learning the truth in 1852, Bickerton felt “violated and deceived.” He famously declared:
“If the approval of God were to come to [me] by accepting the doctrine of polygamy, [I would] prefer the displeasure of God.”
Daniel Stone, Who Was William Bickerton?
Bickerton subsequently left the Church to establish what became the third-largest branch of the Restoration movement.
Impact on Global Growth
Beyond individual crises, the announcement fueled an international “press blitz” that damaged the Church’s reputation. While missionary work continued, conversion rates declined in key regions, impeding the eventual rise of global Mormonism:
- Great Britain: The public image of the Church was significantly tarnished by the “relic of barbarism” narrative.
- Hawai’i: Historian R. Lanier Britsch notes that the doctrine “greatly harmed the LDS cause,” as new converts faced intense harassment and social ostracization from their peers.
Did you know?
Suspicion that Latter-day Saints still secretly practiced polygamy was one reason that Nazis spied on the Church during the 1930s.
The Raid: Legal Battles and Government Crackdown
— The Church faced intense opposition from the U.S. government through federal laws like the Edmunds-Tucker Act, which led to the imprisonment of polygamists and the eventual seizure of Church property.
What were the legal consequences of polygamous marriage?
Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act of 1862
As polygamy became more visible in Utah, the U.S. government passed increasingly strict laws to dismantle the practice. The Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act of 1862 made plural marriage illegal, though it was difficult to enforce. Later, the Edmunds Act of 1882 criminalized cohabitation with multiple wives, leading to mass arrests and disenfranchisement of polygamists.
Edmunds-Tucker Act of 1887
The Edmunds-Tucker Act of 1887 went even further, stripping the Church of its assets and dissolving its legal incorporation. Facing mounting pressure, many Latter-day Saints went into hiding, used aliases, or fled to Mexico and Canada to continue the practice. These legal battles ultimately forced the Church to publicly renounce polygamy in 1890.
The “Raid”—Leaders in hiding
During the 1880s, a period known as “The Raid,” intensified federal prosecution forced many Church leaders and families into a clandestine existence on the “Underground.”
Figures like John Taylor and Wilford Woodruff lived in secrecy for years, while Joseph F. Smith fled to Hawai’i, where he formed a lasting friendship with Susa Young Gates.
This era of evasion required extreme measures to avoid arrest; for instance, Heber J. Grant’s wife, Emily, assumed a false surname and instructed her children to refer to their father as “Uncle Eli.” As husbands fled to avoid imprisonment, families were often torn apart, with some seeking refuge in polygamous colonies in Mexico and Canada.
Ultimately, this sustained legal and social pressure created an existential crisis that forced Church leadership to reconsider the future of plural marriage.
Many wives refused to testify against their husbands
Federal prosecutors often attempted to force plural wives to testify against their husbands, but they didn’t always get compliance. For example, Louie B. Felt took a train east to avoid testifying against her husband twice during the Raid.
Belle Harris, on the other hand, was brought to court but refused to testify.
Court cases and legal resistance
The Supreme Court upheld anti-polygamy laws in Reynolds v. United States (1879), ruling that religious freedom did not protect practices deemed criminal by the government. This decision emboldened federal authorities to escalate prosecutions. Despite attempts to challenge the laws, the courts consistently sided against polygamists.
By the late 1880s, it became clear that continued resistance was unsustainable, leading to the Church’s eventual decision to end plural marriage with the 1890 Manifesto.
The 1890 Manifesto and Its Aftermath
— President Wilford Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto to officially end the practice of plural marriage, a pivotal turning point that allowed the Church to survive legal pressure and pursue Utah statehood.
Why did Wilford Woodruff issue the Manifesto?
By the late 1880s, federal pressure reached a breaking point. The Church faced the loss of its property, the imprisonment of its leaders, and increasing legal restrictions on its members. Many families were separated as polygamous men went into hiding or were arrested.
Wilford Woodruff, the Church’s president, sought divine guidance and in 1890 issued the Manifesto, officially ending the practice of new plural marriages. While some members resisted, Woodruff emphasized that the decision was necessary to preserve the Church and continue temple work.
What were the results of the 1890 Manifesto?
Polygamy prevented Utah from becoming a state
Although Wilford Woodruff called the Manifesto a revelation, political realities played a major role. Despite Utah’s efforts to become a state, Congress repeatedly denied requests, citing polygamy as a deciding factor.
The 1887 Edmunds-Tucker Act weakened the Church’s power, making it clear that Utah could not become a state until polygamy was eliminated.
“The Manifesto” enabled statehood
Woodruff made a largely unilateral decision to publicly announce the cessation of polygamy through the 1890 Manifesto. Among other details, it includes the prophet’s declaration that the Church was “not teaching polygamy or plural marriage, nor permitting any person to enter into its practice.”
The document caught church members and leaders off guard, eventually leading to schisms, secret marriages, excommunications, and further development of temple doctrine.
Nonetheless, it had the intended effect: Utah became the 45th state in 1896.
Effects on Latter-day Saint doctrine
- Official Scripture. Today, the first Manifesto is part of Latter-day Saint canon, featured at the end of the Doctrine and Covenants under the title “Official Declaration 1.” Additionally, the Church’s Scripture Committee added a contextual heading as part of the 2025 scripture updates.
- Temple Practices. The Manifesto catalyzed a shift in temple theology that had incorporated polygamy during Brigham Young’s presidency. Whereas men were often sealed as sons to prominent church leaders (“Law of Adoption”), the Church now began to emphasize the monogamous nuclear family. Additionally, while “celestial marriage” had been coined to characterize polygamy, the term was redefined to mean an eternal union between one man and one woman.
- 1978 Revelation. Woodruff’s decision not to include the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles created significant internal strife. The memory of the historical tension would eventually lead Spencer W. Kimball to spend years working individually with the Apostles to prepare them for the 1978 priesthood revelation.
How did Latter-day Saints react?
The Manifesto was met with mixed responses. Some members welcomed it, believing it was time for the Church to move forward, while others felt betrayed, seeing polygamy as an eternal principle. Some polygamous families continued living together quietly, while others faced painful separations.
Church leaders offered little guidance on how to navigate these changes, leaving many families to make difficult decisions on their own. Despite the public declaration, some new plural marriages continued in secret, particularly outside the United States.
What happened to polygamist families after the Manifesto?
The Manifesto did not immediately end polygamy—it only officially halted new plural marriages.
Existing polygamous families remained in place, though they faced increasing scrutiny. Some men stopped cohabiting with their plural wives to avoid legal trouble, while others continued their relationships in secret. A few Latter-day Saints moved to Mexico and Canada, where plural marriage, though still illegal, was more likely to be tolerated.
Post-Manifesto Plural Marriage
— Despite the official ban, some Latter-day Saints continued to enter new plural marriages in secret or outside the United States until the Second Manifesto of 1904 established stricter disciplinary consequences.
The Second and Third Manifestos
Although the 1890 Manifesto officially ended new plural marriages, some Church leaders quietly approved exceptions, particularly in Mexico and Canada, where U.S. laws did not apply. This led to confusion among members, as some believed polygamy would eventually return.
In 1904, under pressure from the Reed Smoot hearings, President Joseph F. Smith issued the Second Manifesto, declaring that anyone entering a new plural marriage would face excommunication. This moved the Church closer to the true end of sanctioned polygamy.
By 1933, President Heber J. Grant issued what is sometimes called the Third Manifesto, reinforcing that polygamy was completely incompatible with Church membership.
Latter-day Saint Fundamentalist movements
Despite the Church’s efforts to end plural marriage, some members refused to abandon the practice. In the early 20th century, groups of dissenters—later called Mormon fundamentalists—began forming breakaway communities to continue polygamy. Some relied on secretive marriages within mainstream Latter-day Saint congregations, while others openly separated, establishing settlements in Mexico, Canada, and remote areas of Utah and Arizona.
Leaders such as John W. Woolley and Joseph White Musser claimed they had divine authority to continue plural marriage despite opposition from Church leaders. They often based these claims on a 1886 John Taylor revelation.
These groups eventually became the foundation for modern fundamentalist sects, including the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS).
The Church’s current position on plural marriage
Today, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints strictly prohibits polygamy, and members who faily to comply can be excommunicated.
Historical polygamous marriages, however, are still recognized for eternal sealings, meaning a widowed man can technically enter polygamy by being sealed to an additional wife for the afterlife. This policy has led to some theological discussions about how plural marriage might function in the next life, but the Church maintains that monogamy is the standard for mortal marriage.
While fundamentalist groups continue to practice polygamy, they are not affiliated with the Church, and leaders regularly emphasize that the modern faith should not be confused with breakaway sects.
Do Mormons believe in polygamy in heaven?
Church policies suggest this may be the case. While The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints officially ended mortal plural marriage in 1890, its theology allows for what is often called “spiritual polygamy.” Currently, a widowed man may be sealed to another woman in the temple without canceling his prior sealing. Conversely, a living woman is generally restricted to one sealing at a time. This creates a framework where a man could theoretically be part of a polygamous family unit in the afterlife.
Church leaders rarely use the term “spiritual polygamy,” preferring to focus on the “new and everlasting covenant” of marriage. When asked about the logistics of heaven, the official stance is one of trust in divine wisdom; leaders often emphasize that God is just and that all relationship complexities will be resolved with perfect love.
The Church maintains the practice of multiple sealings for men, but it avoids definitive pronouncements on exactly how those eternal family structures will function in the hereafter.
???? For an in-depth discussion of “spiritual polygamy,” see The Ghost of Polyamy by Carol Lynn Pearson.
Polygamy in Popular Culture
— Modern popular culture continues to explore the legacy of Mormon polygamy through investigative books, television docuseries, and historical dramas that dramatize the practice’s impact on families and faith.
Television
Big Love (2006–2011)
Aired from 2006 to 2011 on HBO, Big Love follows Bill Henrickson, a modern-day polygamist in Utah, navigating life with three wives: Barb, Nicki, and Margene. The series explores the secrecy, legal risks, and internal power dynamics of a contemporary plural family while juxtaposing their “suburban” lifestyle against the radical fundamentalism of the fictional United Effort Brotherhood (UEB).
Sister Wives (2010–Present)
Premiering on TLC in 2010, Sister Wives follows Kody Brown and his wives—Meri, Janelle, Christine, and Robyn—as they navigate the emotional and logistical realities of modern plural marriage. Affiliated with the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB), the Browns represent a fundamentalist branch of the Restoration rather than the mainstream Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Escaping Polygamy (2014–2019)
Escaping Polygamy is an American docudrama television series aired on A&E from 2014 to 2019. The series centers around three sisters—Andrea, Jessica, and Shanell—who left The Order, a polygamous group based in Salt Lake City. The series has been criticized for dramatizing and creating fictional escape narratives.
Keep Sweet: Pray and Obey (2022)
Keep Sweet: Pray and Obey is a four-part Netflix docuseries directed by Emmy and Peabody Award-winning filmmaker Rachel Dretzin. It delves into the rise and eventual downfall of Warren Jeffs, the self-proclaimed FLDS prophet, and includes firsthand accounts from survivors like Elissa and Rebecca Wall.
Under the Banner of Heaven (2022)
Based on Jon Krakauer’s nonfiction book, the seven-episode miniseries Under the Banner of Heaven dramatizes the 1984 murders of Brenda Wright Lafferty and her infant daughter. The story follows fictional detective Jeb Pyre (played by Andrew Garfield), a Latter-day Saint whose investigation into the Lafferty family’s religious extremism triggers a personal crisis of faith.
By interweaving the crime with historical flashbacks to the early Church, the series explores the radicalization of certain doctrines. It has faced criticism for reinforcing media tropes that portray the Latter-day Saint tradition as inherently violent while relying on historical inaccuracies.
American Primeval (2025)
Set during the 1857 Utah War, the Netflix series American Primeval dramatizes the violent collision of cultures in the American West. The narrative follows characters like Abish Pratt, a young bride whose journey explores the personal and societal weight of polygamy amidst the fallout of the Mountain Meadows Massacre.
Following its 2025 release, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints condemned the series as “dangerously misleading,” specifically criticizing the “villainous” portrayal of Brigham Young and arguing that the sensationalized fictional storytelling reinforces harmful stereotypes.
Books
A Study in Scarlet (1887)
Arthur Conan Doyle’s 1887 debut Sherlock Holmes novel, A Study in Scarlet, features a sensationalized flashback portraying early Utah as a dark, oppressive theocracy. The plot follows Lucy Ferrier, who is coerced by Brigham Young into a plural marriage against her will, leading to her tragic death and a vengeful pursuit by her lover, Jefferson Hope.
Reflecting Victorian-era anxieties and “anti-Mormon” tropes, the narrative depicts Church leadership as a violent, secret police force. Though a foundational detective story, it is heavily criticized for historical inaccuracies and its role in shaping negative nineteenth-century perceptions of the faith.
The Giant Joshua (1941)
A cornerstone of Mormon historical fiction, Maurine Whipple’s The Giant Joshua depicts the grueling 1860s colonization of southern Utah. The novel follows seventeen-year-old Clorinda “Clory” MacIntyre, the third wife of a prominent settler, as she navigates the physical and emotional trials of the desert frontier. Through Clory’s eyes, Whipple explores the complexities of plural marriage, personal loss, and religious devotion.
Although historian Juanita Brooks assisted with research, she famously critiqued the work for its lingering historical inaccuracies. Regardless, the novel remains a seminal portrayal of the resilience and inner lives of women in early polygamous society.
A Little Lower Than the Angels (1942)
Published in 1942, Virginia Sorensen’s A Little Lower Than the Angels is a lyrical historical novel set in 1840s Nauvoo. It follows Mercy Baker, a devoted mother whose faith and marriage are shattered by the introduction of plural marriage. As her husband, Simon, embraces the doctrine, Mercy experiences a profound emotional and physical decline, illustrating the personal cost of religious mandates. As Sorensen’s debut, the work earned acclaim for its poetic prose and its sensitive, unflinching exploration of how early Latter-day Saint polygamy impacted individual lives and family stability on the Illinois frontier.
Under the Banner of Heaven (2003)
Jon Krakauer’s 2003 nonfiction work, Under the Banner of Heaven, examines the intersection of religious fundamentalism and violent extremism through the lens of the 1984 Lafferty murders. (It inspired the Hulu television series of the same name.)
While highly influential, the book has been criticized by scholars and Church representatives for historical inaccuracies and for portraying Latter-day Saint tradition as inherently linked to religious violence.
Escape (2007)
Carolyn Jessop’s Escape (2007) is a harrowing memoir detailing her life within the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS).
At eighteen, Carolyn was coerced into an arranged marriage with Merril Jessop, a man thirty-two years her senior who already had three wives. Over the next fifteen years, she bore eight children and endured psychological abuse, strict control over her personal life, and constant surveillance from her husband and sister wives.
The 19th Wife (2008)
David Ebershoff’s The 19th Wife (2008) is a historical novel that intertwines two narratives exploring the complexities of polygamy within Mormonism.
The first narrative centers on Ann Eliza Young, who, in 1875, separates from her husband, Brigham Young, the leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and embarks on a crusade to end polygamy in the United States. Her story provides a rich account of her family’s polygamous history and her transformation into a public figure opposing plural marriage.
The second narrative unfolds in modern-day Utah, where the fictional character Jordan Scott, expelled from his fundamentalist sect as a teenager, returns to investigate the murder of his father, for which his mother, the 19th wife, has been accused. As Jordan delves into the case, he confronts the community that once cast him out, seeking to uncover the truth behind his father’s death.
Stolen Innocence: My Story of Growing Up in a Polygamous Sect (2008)
Elissa Wall’s Stolen Innocence: My Story of Growing Up in a Polygamous Sect, Becoming a Teenage Bride, and Breaking Free of Warren Jeffs is a memoir chronicling her life in the FLDS church.
Raised in a rigid, male-dominated religious community, Wall was taught from a young age to obey without question and to prepare for her future as a plural wife. At just 14 years old, she was forced into an arranged marriage with her 19-year-old cousin, Allen Steed, under the direction of FLDS leader Warren Jeffs. The marriage quickly became abusive, and Wall endured years of emotional and physical suffering before finding the strength to escape.
Her eventual decision to testify against Jeffs played a pivotal role in his 2007 conviction, making her one of the most prominent voices in the fight against FLDS abuse.
Mormon Polygamy: Frequently Asked Questions
— This section provides answers to common questions about the history of Latter-day Saint polygamy.
No. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints strictly prohibits plural marriage. Members who practice it are subject to Church discipline, including excommunication. While fundamentalist groups still engage in plural marriage, they are unaffiliated with the Church.
Plural marriage is outlawed in the State of Utah. However, in 2020, Utah passed Senate Bill 102, which effectively decriminalized bigamy among consenting adults, reducing it from a felony to a religious infraction. It remains a third-degree felony if the marriage involves fraud, coercion, or underage individuals.
Extreme federal pressure led the Church to cease practicing polygamy. The 1887 Edmunds-Tucker Act threatened to seize Church property and temples. To preserve the Church’s existence, President Wilford Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto, the first of several official attempts to ban the practice.
Yes. Historical records generally support that Joseph Smith was sealed to between 30 and 40 women. While he was legally married only to Emma Smith, his plural marriages included sealings to women who already had husbands and also to teenagers.
Historical records indicate that the Prophet was sealed to more than 20 women before his first wife, Emma Smith. Although he legally married her in 1827, her opposition to polygamy delayed her “sealing” to Joseph until May 1843.
Brigham Young and Heber C. Kimball are often considered the most extensive practitioners of Mormon polygamy. Young had approximately 56 children with 55 documented wives, while Kimball had 66 children with more than 40 wives.
Current doctrine allows a man to be sealed for eternity to more than one woman in a temple ceremony if his previous wife is deceased. This is often referred to as “spiritual polygamy,” as it doesn’t involve multiple living wives.
No. The Church strictly prohibits plural marriage in the modern day. However, secret marriages were performed in the aftermath of “The Manifesto.”
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Further Reading
- Who Were Joseph Smith’s Wives?
- How Many Wives Did Brigham Young Have?
- Polygamy in ‘A House Full of Females’
- D&C 132: What Is the Plural Marriage Revelation?
- What Do Polygamy Skeptics Think About Joseph Smith’s Character?
Mormon Polygamy Resources
- Joseph Smith’s Polygamy (Link)
- Plural Marriage in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Gospel Topics Essays)
- Kathryn M Daynes, More Wives Than One: Transformation of the Mormon Marriage System, 1840-1910 (University of Illinois Press)
- Zerah Pulsipher and the Regulation of Plural Marriage (Journal of Mormon History)
- D. Michael Quinn, “LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890-1904” (Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought)
